Drug Repurposing for COVID-19 Therapy: Pipeline, Current Status and Challenges

Repurposed drugs such as Remdesivir, Fabipiravir and Molnupiravir became life saver drugs during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic, attesting the efficacy of the repurposing approach. By definition, drug repurposing is the process of identification of new therapeutic use of an existing drug or drug candidate that has already passed the safety, toxicity and pharmacology tests for human use. Although drug repurposing approach involves a significant level of challenge, affordability and faster discovery pipeline outweighs the risks in the event of emergency situations like the current COVID-19 pandemic. In this chapter, we provide a brief summary of the advantages of the drug repurposing approach, followed by an overview of the drug repurposing pipeline and finally end with an update on the status of drug repurposing in developing effective anti-viral therapeutics against COVID-19. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023.

Understanding the Molecular Mechanism(s) of SARS-CoV2 Infection and Propagation in Human to Discover Potential Preventive and Therapeutic Approach

Exported across the world might create a serious controversy. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) infection into the host undergoes a huge number of complex repli-cative machineries which remains unclear. Understanding the mechanism (s) of replication and mode of infection of SARS-CoV2 to human cells will help us in the development of novel vaccines or drugs for the eradication and prevention of the disease. This review compiles the knowledge of SARS-CoV2 rep-licative machinery, mode of infection to the human cells and the development of drugs and vaccines which are currently under clinical trials.Copyright © 2020 Bentham Science Publishers.

RBTM: Prediction of COVID-19 from Random Blood Test with Machine Learning Algorithms

Recently, the ongoing global pandemic of novel coronavirus infection had a devastating impact worldwide. We develop an efficient classification model that effectively produces the predictive values of infected patients with suspicious symptoms and epidemiological history to defeat this. The research aims to use the Traditional technique to compare clinical blood tests of positive and negative cases. The diagnostic Machine Learning model incorporates 551random blood samples with the following parameters of the patient's demographic features, Platelet, Hemoglobin, Lymphocyte, Neutrophil, Leukocyte (WBC), Turbidimetric, Troponin-I of COVID positive and negative cases. The prediction model can achieve the classification report of Accuracy, Precision, Recall, and F1 score values. In this analysis, considering seven different algorithms for the prediction and the observation's estimation, the data is 5-fold cross-validated. Finally, investigational outcomes attain accurate predictions. Logistic Regression predicted 0.83% of accuracy. The Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) metrics for Logistic Regression, the Precision was 0.78%, Recall was 0.85%, and F1-score was 0.82%, Specificity was 0.58%, and Sensitivity was 0.41%. © 2022 IEEE.

Differentiating Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) and Its Mimics - A Single-Center Experience From a Tropical Setting

OBJECTIVES: Identifying clinical and laboratory indicators that differentiate multisystem inflam-matory syndrome in children (MIS-C) apart from other febrile diseases in a tropical hospital setting. METHOD(S): Review of hospital records done in a tertiary care exclusive children's hospital for children admitted from April, 2020 till June, 2021. Laboratory values, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) serological status, and clinical signs and symptoms of patients with MIS-C, and those with similar presentations were analyzed. RESULT(S): 114 children fulfilled the inclusion criteria (age group of 1 mo-18 y) for whom a diagnosis of MIS-C was considered in the emergency room based on the clinical features. Among them, 64 children had the final diagnosis of MIS-C, and the remaining 50 children had confirmatory evidence of infections mimicking MIS-C such as enteric fever, scrub typhus, dengue and appendicitis. CONCLUSION(S): Older age group, presence of muco-cutaneous symptoms, very high C-reactive protein, neutrophilic leukocytosis, abdominal pain and absence of hepatosplenomegaly favor a diagnosis of MIS-C.

Blockchain technology approach for drug delivery in health care: A review

Interoperability in medical services has customarily been engaged around data trade between business elements, for instance, unique clinic frameworks. In any case, there has been a new push toward patient-driven interoperability, in which wellbeing data trade shows restraint intervened and patient-driven. Direct access to data for patients and a more powerful data-sharing foundation could all the more likely set up the medical care framework to oversee general wellbeing dangers during the rise of lethal sickness episodes, for example, COVID-19. The progressive framework, blockchain has been examined in the field of medical care in the course of recent years. Thus, an orderly examination of the current group of information concerning blockchain research in medical care is fundamental. The necessity of this examination is to help further investigations dependent on the flow research pattern examination through graphical representation and bibliographic material investigation, which collars every one of the different clinical fields prompts more use of blockchain innovation in medical care. This investigation infers that Blockchain technology has different applications, which prompts advancement of medical care. © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The impact on the job of working from home teleworkers: a report on the Asian context of COVID-19

Working from home is a potentially powerful alternative method of work arrangement recently in order to maintain essential business operations in response to pandemic disruptions, thanks to the advancement of technologies that have shifted the traditional working way that requires a physical presence to a virtual environment. With the purpose of validating a theoretical model that forecasts the turnover possibility of teleworking employees during an ongoing challenge as the COVID-19 airborne disease spreads, the present research proposes a new and improved theoretical model by incorporating: 1) the stress-strain-outcome model;2) the relevance between professional remoteness and turnover motivation. The present study reveals that professional isolation is no longer relevant to worker's turnover intentions in the presence of limited job opportunities due to the global economic threats of downturns. It also offers perspectives and potential lessons for managers and organisations to develop strategies to optimise the values of teleworking and improve the rate of job retention. Copyright © 2022 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

Effect of Thromboprophylaxis on Clinical Outcomes After COVID-19 Hospitalization.

BACKGROUND: Patients hospitalized with COVID-19 have an increased incidence of thromboembolism. The role of extended thromboprophylaxis after hospital discharge is unclear. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether anticoagulation is superior to placebo in reducing death and thromboembolic complications among patients discharged after COVID-19 hospitalization. DESIGN: Prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT04650087). SETTING: Done during 2021 to 2022 among 127 U.S. hospitals. PARTICIPANTS: Adults aged 18 years or older hospitalized with COVID-19 for 48 hours or more and ready for discharge, excluding those with a requirement for, or contraindication to, anticoagulation. INTERVENTION: 2.5 mg of apixaban versus placebo twice daily for 30 days. MEASUREMENTS: The primary efficacy end point was a 30-day composite of death, arterial thromboembolism, and venous thromboembolism. The primary safety end points were 30-day major bleeding and clinically relevant nonmajor bleeding. RESULTS: Enrollment was terminated early, after 1217 participants were randomly assigned, because of a lower than anticipated event rate and a declining rate of COVID-19 hospitalizations. Median age was 54 years, 50.4% were women, 26.5% were Black, and 16.7% were Hispanic; 30.7% had a World Health Organization severity score of 5 or greater, and 11.0% had an International Medical Prevention Registry on Venous Thromboembolism risk prediction score of greater than 4. Incidence of the primary end point was 2.13% (95% CI, 1.14 to 3.62) in the apixaban group and 2.31% (CI, 1.27 to 3.84) in the placebo group. Major bleeding occurred in 2 (0.4%) and 1 (0.2%) and clinically relevant nonmajor bleeding occurred in 3 (0.6%) and 6 (1.1%) apixaban-treated and placebo-treated participants, respectively. By day 30, thirty-six (3.0%) participants were lost to follow-up, and 8.5% of apixaban and 11.9% of placebo participants permanently discontinued the study drug treatment. LIMITATIONS: The introduction of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines decreased the risk for hospitalization and death. Study enrollment spanned the peaks of the Delta and Omicron variants in the United States, which influenced illness severity. CONCLUSION: The incidence of death or thromboembolism was low in this cohort of patients discharged after hospitalization with COVID-19. Because of early enrollment termination, the results were imprecise and the study was inconclusive. PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE: National Institutes of Health.

Alterations of adipokines, pancreatic hormones and incretins in acute and convalescent COVID-19 children.

BACKGROUND: The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), accountable for Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), may cause hyperglycemia and additional systemic complexity in metabolic parameters. It is unsure even if the virus itself causes type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus (T1DM or T2DM). Furthermore, it is still unclear whether even recuperating COVID-19 individuals have an increased chance to develop new-onset diabetes. METHODS: We wanted to determine the impact of COVID-19 on the levels of adipokines, pancreatic hormones, incretins and cytokines in acute COVID-19, convalescent COVID-19 and control children through an observational study. We performed a multiplex immune assay analysis and compared the plasma levels of adipocytokines, pancreatic hormones, incretins and cytokines of children presenting with acute COVID-19 infection and convalescent COVID-19. RESULTS: Acute COVID-19 children had significantly elevated levels of adipsin, leptin, insulin, C-peptide, glucagon and ghrelin in comparison to convalescent COVID-19 and controls. Similarly, convalescent COVID-19 children had elevated levels of adipsin, leptin, insulin, C-peptide, glucagon, ghrelin and Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in comparison to control children. On the other hand, acute COVID-19 children had significantly decreased levels of adiponectin and Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP) in comparison to convalescent COVID-19 and controls. Similarly, convalescent COVID-19 children had decreased levels of adiponectin and GIP in comparison to control children. Acute COVID-19 children had significantly elevated levels of cytokines, (Interferon (IFN)) IFNγ, Interleukins (IL)-2, TNFα, IL-1α, IL-1ß, IFNα, IFNß, IL-6, IL-12, IL-17A and Granulocyte-Colony Stimulating Factors (G-CSF) in comparison to convalescent COVID-19 and controls. Convalescent COVID-19 children had elevated levels of IFNγ, IL-2, TNFα, IL-1α, IL-1ß, IFNα, IFNß, IL-6, IL-12, IL-17A and G-CSF in comparison to control children. Additionally, Principal component Analysis (PCA) analysis distinguishes acute COVID-19 from convalescent COVID-19 and controls. The adipokines exhibited a significant correlation with the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. CONCLUSION: Children with acute COVID-19 show significant glycometabolic impairment and exaggerated cytokine responses, which is different from convalescent COVID-19 infection and controls.

Differentiating Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) and Its Mimics - A Single-Center Experience From a Tropical Setting.

OBJECTIVE: Identifying clinical and laboratory indicators that differentiate multisystem inflam-matory syndrome in children (MIS-C) apart from other febrile diseases in a tropical hospital setting. METHODS: Review of hospital records done in a tertiary care exclusive children's hospital for children admitted from April, 2020 till June, 2021. Laboratory values, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) serological status, and clinical signs and symptoms of patients with MIS-C, and those with similar presentations were analyzed. RESULTS: 114 children fulfilled the inclusion criteria (age group of 1 mo-18 y) for whom a diagnosis of MIS-C was considered in the emergency room based on the clinical features. Among them, 64 children had the final diagnosis of MIS-C, and the remaining 50 children had confirmatory evidence of infections mimicking MIS-C such as enteric fever, scrub typhus, dengue and appendicitis. CONCLUSION: Older age group, presence of muco-cutaneous symptoms, very high C-reactive protein, neutrophilic leukocytosis, abdominal pain and absence of hepatosplenomegaly favor a diagnosis of MIS-C.

Deep learning methods for scientific and industrial research

Deep learning (DL) is a very powerful computational tool for various applications in scientific and industrial research which can be real-time implemented for societal benefits. Several factors impact the development of optimized DL models for better prediction including the amount of quality sample data, domain-specific knowledge, and the architecture of the model for extraction of the useful features/patterns from the data. The present chapter demonstrates the state-of-the-art DL methodologies used by the researchers from different laboratories under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India to solve important research activities across several sectors like Medical, Healthcare, Agriculture, Energy, etc. The Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) techniques are utilized for Tumor diagnosis, classifying molecular subtypes of glioma tissues, and predicting driver gene mutations in glioma. Similarly, the Long short-term memory (LSTM) model is applied for the assessment of crop production, and transfer learning is used for the classification of tea leaves. Further, the ensemble LSTM methodology is implemented for short-term prediction of wind speed to enhance the renewable energy sectors. Finally, the multivariate LSTM models were developed by integrating the weather parameters for the prediction of covid-19 spread over different states in India which is an input for policy planning and supply chain management during the pandemic time. All the use cases are being validated and the results are quite satisfying and provide confidence for the real-time application of DL for scientific and industrial research and societal benefit to the common people. © 2023 Elsevier B.V.

The mucormycosis and stroke: The learning curve during the second COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: The Angio-invasive Rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis (ROCM) producing strokes is a less explored entity. Our hospital, a stroke-ready one, had an opportunity to manage mucormycosis when it was identified as the nodal center for mucormycosis management. We are sharing our experiences and mistakes in managing the cerebrovascular manifestations of ROCM. METHODS: We conducted a prospective observational study during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic from 1st May 2021 to 30th September 2021, where consecutive patients aged more than 18 years with microbiologically confirmed cases of ROCM were included. Clinical details (timing of stroke onset after ROCM symptoms, GCS, NIHSS), imaging findings (ASPECTS, the territory of stroke, the pattern of infarct, hemorrhagic transformation, cavernous sinus thrombosis), angiogram findings, management details (IV thrombolysis), and outcomes (mRS at discharge and duration of hospital stay) were documented. We also compared the demographics, clinical features (NIHSS), radiological findings, treatment details, duration of hospital stay, and functional outcome at the discharge of the ROCM stroke patients with stroke patients without ROCM. RESULTS: Stroke developed in 42% of patients with ROCM, predominantly anterior circulation border zone ischemic infarcts. Strokes occurred after a median of five days from the onset of ROCM symptoms. The most common vessel involved was the ophthalmic artery, followed by the cavernous ICA. We could not thrombolyse ROCM stroke patients. ROCM patients who developed stroke compared with patients without stroke had a more infiltrative fungal infection and higher inflammatory markers. Mucormycosis associated stroke patients had higher in-hospital mortality and poor functional outcomes. T CONCLUSION: Due to delayed recognition of stroke symptoms, none received reperfusion strategies, leading to poor functional outcomes. For early stroke detection, ROCM cases need frequent monitoring and education of patients and their relatives about the ALS acronym (loss of ambulation, limb weakness, and loss of speech).

Management and outcome of infectious spondylodiscitis in patients with and without neurological deficit: A prospective study

Introduction: The term Infectious Spondylodiscitis involves infection of the vertebra and infection of the intervertebral disc, or both. Any delay in its diagnosis or management may cause serious long-term morbidity and mortality. In this study, we report the experiences in our Institution in the management of severe and complicated cases of infectious spondylodiscitis. Material(s) and Method(s): Over the period of 2 years from 2020-2022 (covid-19) 40 patients were operated in our medical college the management was tailored according to the clinical condition based on VAS, ODI, radiological studies and lab results of each case;and patients were then prospectively followed-up for 2 years. Result(s): The goals of treatment for spondylodiscitis is to relieve pain, restore pain free mobilization of the patient and to eliminate infection. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was considered the main choice of investigating tool other assessments were done by ODI, VAS, Neurologic deficits was assessed by Modified McCormick scale, sepsis, an intraspinal empyema, the failure of conservative treatment, and spinal instability are all indications for surgical treatment. Conclusion(s): The quality of life of patients who have been appropriately treated for infectious spondylodiscitis has been found to be highly satisfactory in general. The risk of recurrence increases in the presence of accompanying illnesses such as diabetes mellitus, renal failure, which were managed by immediate debridement and results were good which was assessed according to above mentioned post-op ODI and VAS. Copyright © 2023 Ubiquity Press. All rights reserved.

Graph Network based Approaches for Multi-modal Movie Recommendation System

The three times increase of SonyLiv viewers during the Tokyo Olympic, the 10% hike of YouTube users during the isolation era of covid-pandemic, and the 19% growth in Netflix user count due to the fastest growth of OTT, etc. have made the digital platform's mode all-time active and specific. The hourly increase of users' interactions and the e-commerce platform's desire of letting users engage on their sites are pushing researchers to shape the virtual digital web as user specific and revenue-oriented. This paper develops a deep learning-based approach for building a movie recommendation system with three main aspects: (a) using a knowledge graph to embed text and meta information of movies, (b) using multi-modal information of movies like audio, visual frames, text summary, meta data information to generate movie/user representations without directly using rating information;this multi-modal representation can help in coping up with cold-start problem of recommendation system (c) a graph attention network based approach for developing regression system. For meta encoding, we have built knowledge graph from the meta information of the movies directly. For movie-summary embedding, we extracted nouns, verbs, and object to build a knowledge graph with head-relation-tail relationships. A deep neural network, as well as Graph attention networks, are utilized for measuring performance in terms of RMSE score. The proposed system is tested on an extended MovieLens-100K data-set having multi-modal information. Experimental results establish that only rating-based embeddings in the current setup outperform the state-of-the-art techniques but usage of multi-modal information in embedding generation performs better than its single-modal counterparts. 1. © 2022 IEEE.

Post COVID-19 clinical manifestations and its risk factors among patients in a Northern District in Kerala, India.

Background: The novel virus SARS-CoV-2 has caused a pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). There is emerging evidence of post-COVID-19 manifestations among patients who sustain acute COVID-19. Most studies report fatigue, dyspnea, and myalgia as the common symptoms; however, currently, there is limited knowledge of these post-COVID manifestations and their risk factors, especially in India. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among patients who had attended the district post-COVID clinic, Wayanad district, Kerala, from October 2020 to June 2021. Data were collected by direct/telephonic patient interviews and from their existing case records, using a pretested semi-structured proforma. Results: The sample size was 667. The mean age of the study population was 45 years (standard deviation [SD]: 14.55). The majority of the population presented with dyspnea (48%), fatigue (32%), and cough (25.6%). Mental health problems were also reported in 6% of participants. The respiratory system was commonly involved (61.2%). Around one-third of the patients (36.4%) had dyspnea on exertion and 11.8% had dyspnea at rest. One-fifth of the population reported aggravation of pre-existing co-morbidity and half of the respondents had persistence of at least one symptom after 6 months. There exist statistically significant associations between identified risk factors, especially gender, increasing age, the severity of COVID-19 infection, history of tobacco/alcohol use, and co-morbidities with outcomes. Conclusion: As post-COVID syndrome is a multisystem disease, integrated rehabilitation is required with targeted intervention for survivors based on their symptoms and needs.

Quarantine and COVID-19 pandemic: Multidimensional perception of people in quarantine in North Kerala.

Background: Proper hand hygiene, face masks, social distancing, maintaining appropriate social distancing, and quarantine are the major strategies for the prevention of transmission of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) infection. The aim of the study was to determine and asses the knowledge, perceptions, health practices of quarantine and COVID-19 and to determine the psychosocial profile of people in quarantine. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was done in quarantined individuals in a rural and urban setting in Malappuram district of Kerala from February 2021 to June 2021 by telephonic interview. Mental health status was assessed by Patient Health Questionnaire 9. Results: Only half (49.6%) of the population has satisfactory knowledge about COVID-19 disease. Only 53.9% has satisfactory knowledge on preventive measures and this is significantly more in rural (62.9%) compared to urban (44.4%). Only 45.3% has satisfactory adherence on practice of preventive measures. Also nearly half (44.9%) of the participants were affected by factors such as fear of infection, frustration, inadequate supplies, inadequate communication and financial insecurity. Urban population (53.2%) were more affected compared to rural (37.1%). 31.6% of the participants were having any form of depression with PHQ 9. Pearson's correlation test revealed significant correlations between different factors and outcome variables. Predictors of 'Satisfactory Practice on preventive measures' and 'Any depression' were determined. Conclusion: Only half of the population has satisfactory knowledge and practice on preventive measures. Ensure health intervention programs to improve knowledge and adherence to practices. Strengthening of system to support their needs and psychosocial support should be provided.

A qualitative study of factors influencing COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among South Asians in London.

Objectives: This qualitative study sought to elicit the views and experiences of patients and health-care professionals to identify the factors associated with COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among South Asians in London. Design: In-depth semi-structured telephone and virtual interviews. Setting: UK. Participants: Convenience and purposive sample of 12 individuals including patients, clinicians, and a medical receptionist. Main Outcome Measures: Our dataset identifies and explains the reasons for distinguishing between those individuals who are COVID-19 vaccine-hesitant, and those who are COVID-19 vaccine-anxious. Results: COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and the decision on whether to - or not to - vaccinate against COVID-19 involves ongoing and unresolved inner conflict about COVID-19 vaccines. Our findings therefore suggest that some individuals may be existing in a state of inbetweeness; where they are neither pro nor anti vaccination, while simultaneously questioning the many 'truths' surrounding COVID-19 and not just one truth such as the safety of COVID-19 vaccines. We argue that this in-between state is intensified by technology and social media; culminating in the Rashomon Effect, whereby a combination of truths, fractured truths, subjective realities, and unreliable or contradictory sources impact on our perceptions of COVID-19. Conclusions: Given the complexities arising from the multiple factors influencing vaccine hesitancy and scepticism, 'quick fixes' and 'one size fits all' solutions to address COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy will be ineffective. Therefore, promoting trust and prioritising good after-care as well as on-going care as a response to the effects of the pandemic is vital.

Heterologous immunity induced by 1st generation COVID-19 vaccines and its role in developing a pan-coronavirus vaccine.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome virus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative infectious agent of the COVID-19 pandemic, has led to multiple (4-6) waves of infections worldwide during the past two years. The development of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 has led to successful mass immunizations worldwide, mitigating the worldwide mortality due the pandemic to a great extent. Yet the evolution of new variants highlights a need to develop a universal vaccine which can prevent infections from all virulent SARS-CoV-2. Most of the current first generation COVID-19 vaccines are based on the Spike protein from the original Wuhan-hu-1 virus strain. It is encouraging that they still protect from serious illnesses, hospitalizations and mortality against a number of mutated viral strains, to varying degrees. Understanding the mechanisms by which these vaccines provide heterologous protection against multiple highly mutated variants can reveal strategies to develop a universal vaccine. In addition, many unexposed individuals have been found to harbor T cells that are cross-reactive against SARS-CoV-2 antigens, with a possible protective role. In this review, we will discuss various aspects of natural or vaccine-induced heterologous (cross-reactive) adaptive immunity against SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses, and their role in achieving the concept of a pan-coronavirus vaccine.

CHANGE IN EDUCATION METHOD IN COVID-19 PERIOD: EFFECT ON PATTERN OF MYOPIA IN PEDIATRIC AGE GROUP

Introduction: Myopia is a major health issue in our society. There is a large number of proportion remain undiagnosed. High myopia can be associated with multiple consequences as myopic retinopathy, myopic macular degeneration, retinal detachment and amblyopia. The aim of our study to focus on magnitude of childhood myopia, increase awareness for myopia in our society so that we can reduce vision threatening sequelae in children. Methods: Study was conducted in ophthalmology department and ENT department government medical college Saharanpur, medicine department Uttar Pradesh medical sciences, Saifai and pediatric department GTB medical college New Delhi. Children between 7 to 16 years with ametropia included in the study to find out magnitude of myopia among them. Result: A total of 1460 children between the age of 7-16 years with complains of eyeache, headache, heaviness of head diminution of vision, and with other asthenopic symptoms included in the study. Among these 320 children were myopic. It shows high magnitude of myopia in children. Out of these myopic children mild grade myopic children were in high proportion (35.9%). Conclusion: The study showed the pattern of myopia in children in Indian population. Screening in schools and early diagnosis of refractive error affect the learning and performances of children. In our study we showed the pattern of severity of myopia in children. Study also showed the effect of digital screen time of children with myopia.

EPIDEMICS AND PANDEMICS: THE KERALA MODEL

Infectious diseases are always keyed out by either epidemic or a pandemic. These are the words used for describing a disease outbreak. But, an epidemic and a pandemic describe different stages of disease in society. An epidemic is a disease outbreak that affects many individuals in an area, or a population and will affect many people concurrently and spread across different communities within a short period. Epidemic involves not only infectious diseases but all that deteriorates the health of a society and can follow predictable patterns and these trends are often used to monitor, predict, and control the spread of the infection. A pandemic is an epidemic that moves across the borders of different nations. Pandemic affects the wider geographical area and affects people around the world. The causative agent, probably a virus might infect people, spread faster among communities, and may result in a huge global death toll. The world since December 2019 is in the grips of the Covid-19 virus. In this paper, an attempt has been made to pinpoint and highlight the efforts made by the state of Kerala in tackling the pandemic of all times, Covid 19. © 2022 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.